International Ecotourism Management
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International Ecotourism Management
International Ecotourism Management:Using Australia and Africa as Case StudiesPaul F. J. EaglesProfessorDepartment of Recreation and Leisure StudiesUn International Ecotourism Managementniversity of WaterlooWaterloo, Ontario, Canada. N2L 3G1.Nature-based tourism is a rapidly expanding portion of the world’s travel market. Many of the destinations are national parks, game reserves and other types of protected areas. Nature tourism is a very important export industry throughout much International Ecotourism Managementof sub-Saharan Africa. The size of the industry' causes impacts that require sophisticated management approaches. This paper discusses key managementInternational Ecotourism Management
issues apparent world-wide: management of environmental quality, limits of acceptable change, management of tourist use, allocation of access, market International Ecotourism Management:Using Australia and Africa as Case StudiesPaul F. J. EaglesProfessorDepartment of Recreation and Leisure StudiesUn International Ecotourism Managementy and community development. North American, Australian and African experiences in these areas are emphasised.IntroductionIn western society, travel to experience wild nature is an old and well-accepted phenomenon. Starting in 1872 in the United States with Yellowstone Park, in 1879 in Australia wit International Ecotourism Managementh Royal Park and in 1885 in Canada with Banff Park and Niagara Falls, governments set aside natural areas for protection and recreation in the form ofInternational Ecotourism Management
national parks. Many African national parks originated as game reserves. The first national parks were Albert National Park, created in the Belgian CInternational Ecotourism Management:Using Australia and Africa as Case StudiesPaul F. J. EaglesProfessorDepartment of Recreation and Leisure StudiesUn International Ecotourism Managementka, now Tanzania, the Selous Game Reserve was assembled, in 1922, from several smaller reserves (Luard, 1985). Later the Ngorongoro Highlands were made into a game reserve in 1928. soon followed by the Serengeti in 1930. In 1940 the 2 areas were combined into the Serengeti National Park (Turner. 198 International Ecotourism Management8). Kenya’s first national park, Nairobi, was created in 1946 (Luard, 1985).These initial attempts started a trend. There is now a world-wide system oInternational Ecotourism Management
f thousandshttps://khothuvien.cori!of protected areas in all parts of the globe. Globally since 1970, the number of protected areas increased by 185%,International Ecotourism Management:Using Australia and Africa as Case StudiesPaul F. J. EaglesProfessorDepartment of Recreation and Leisure StudiesUn International Ecotourism Managementth savanna ecosystems have assigned substantial amounts of their territory to protected areas. Examples are Tanzania with 11.5%, Botswana with 18.2%, Zimbabwe with 11.3%, Senegal with 10.8% (Matowanyika, 1989) and Zambia with 29.1% (Teye, 1987).Since the last century; tourism use of parkland changed International Ecotourism Management from a few hundred hardytravellers to tens of millions. The numbers of travellers increased due to expanding affluence, cheaper travel costs and incrInternational Ecotourism Management
easing interest in the environment.Higher levels of environmental consciousness in western society are a primary' factor in the higher demand for natuInternational Ecotourism Management:Using Australia and Africa as Case StudiesPaul F. J. EaglesProfessorDepartment of Recreation and Leisure StudiesUn International Ecotourism Managementlity sites. The world’s major media, and most specifically film and television, present quality nature programs about these areas to a world-wide audience. All of these factors push ecotravel growth.Nature-based tourism is based upon the desire of people to experience nature in their leisure time. T International Ecotourism Managementhe growing levels of participation have led to the recognition of submarkets. Eagles (1995a) proposed that nature-based tourism has at least four submInternational Ecotourism Management
arkets, differentiated according to the travel motives of the travellers.Ecotourism involves travel for the discovery of and learning about wild naturInternational Ecotourism Management:Using Australia and Africa as Case StudiesPaul F. J. EaglesProfessorDepartment of Recreation and Leisure StudiesUn International Ecotourism Management. Adventure travel is personal accomplishment through the thrills of dominating dangerous environments. Car camping is safe family travel in the interface between the wild and the civilised (Eagles, 1995a).Ecotourism may be the fastest growing tourism sub-market. The growth primarily involves travel International Ecotourism Management by Europeans and North Americans to all parts of the world. For example. Eagles and Wind (1994) found that Canadian ecotour companies visited 50 diffInternational Ecotourism Management
erent countries in 1992. Recently, with rapidly developing economies in Asia, ecotourists from these countries are entering the market as consumers. TInternational Ecotourism Management:Using Australia and Africa as Case StudiesPaul F. J. EaglesProfessorDepartment of Recreation and Leisure StudiesUn International Ecotourism Managementries travelling to destinations in many other countries.Since people travel domestically before travelling to foreign areas, the domestic park infrastructure is better developed and more experienced in Canada, the United States, parts of Europe and Australia, than in most of the newer destinations. International Ecotourism ManagementIn most destinations the experience is generally positive, but problems occur and are handled with varying levels of success.Australia is a good exampInternational Ecotourism Management
le of nature-based tourism, due to its recognized leadership and rapidly developing industry. Tourism is Australia’s largest export industry (Shea andInternational Ecotourism Management:Using Australia and Africa as Case StudiesPaul F. J. EaglesProfessorDepartment of Recreation and Leisure StudiesUn International Ecotourism ManagementThe inbound tourism industry generated $10.6 billion in export earnings and employed 130,000 people in 1994. By 2000 international visitation is expected to double to 6.3 million (TFC, 1995). The domestic tourism market is three limes larger than the inbound market (Moore and Carter, 1993). Much of International Ecotourism Managementthis tourism is based on the superb natural features of the country, with ecotourism a major component (Shea and Sharp, 1993). The national parks andInternational Ecotourism Management
protected areas, and especially those designated as World Heritage Sites, are important destinations for national and international ecotourists (DowliInternational Ecotourism Management:Using Australia and Africa as Case StudiesPaul F. J. EaglesProfessorDepartment of Recreation and Leisure StudiesUn International Ecotourism Managementd approve a national ecotourism strategy (Allcock et. al., 1994). The implementation of the strategy is well under way, with $10,000,000 of federal funding approved in priority areas such as accreditation, market research, energy and waste minimisation, infrastructure, education, monitoring, regiona International Ecotourism Managementl planning, business development and conferences (Lee, 1994). Individual states are responding with state level plans (Burns, 1995). There are high leInternational Ecotourism Management
vels of industry, government and environmentalist attention paid to the long-term implications of increasing tourism use in sensitive parks, reserves International Ecotourism Management:Using Australia and Africa as Case StudiesPaul F. J. EaglesProfessorDepartment of Recreation and Leisure StudiesUn International Ecotourism Managementt efforts are aggressively trying to fill the gap between policy endorsement and policy implementation so often seen in tourism (Pigram, 1990).Kenya and Tanzania are well-documented examples of nature-based tourism in Africa. Starting with only a few thousand tourists in the early 1950s, Tanzania’s International Ecotourism Managementtourismincreased to 350,000 in 1995 (Friesen, 1995) and Kenya (0 865,300 in 1994 (Anon, 1996). In both countries the tourism industry is closely tiedInternational Ecotourism Management
to world-class system of national parks and game reserves. The foreign exchange earnings from tourism rival and sometimes exceed those of agriculture,International Ecotourism Management:Using Australia and Africa as Case StudiesPaul F. J. EaglesProfessorDepartment of Recreation and Leisure StudiesUn International Ecotourism Managementize that nature-based tourism is only a small part of the overall tourism industry, possibly 7%. In Africa, (he majority of foreign tourist arrivals to the continent come to four countries, Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt and Kenya (Teye, 1987). Only Kenya has its tourism predominately nature-based.The link International Ecotourism Management between environmental protection, international tourism and economic development became widely recognised in eastern Africa in the early 1970s (ThresInternational Ecotourism Management
her, 1972; Thresher, 1981). Filani (1975) and Western and Henry (1979) proposed the development of national tourism policy, closely linked to nationalInternational Ecotourism Management:Using Australia and Africa as Case StudiesPaul F. J. EaglesProfessorDepartment of Recreation and Leisure StudiesUn International Ecotourism Managementructure of national legislation, policy planning and site management. However, not all tourism development efforts in sub-Saharan Africa have been successful. Ankomah and Crompton (1990) identified the five factors inhibiting these development efforts as being: negative market image, lack of foreign International Ecotourism Management exchange for capital development, lack of trained personnel for tourism, weak institutional frameworks for planning and management and political instInternational Ecotourism Management
ability.To better understand nature-based tourism, scholars propose dimensions of naturebased tourism. These dimensions vary from those of other formsGọi ngay
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