Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles
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Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles
ỉTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training:A Literature Review of EmpiricalEvidence for Training PrinciplesAlice F. Healy, Vivian I. Schneider, a Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlesand Lyle E. Bourne, Jr.PRIVILEGED AND CONFIDENTIAL; PLEASE DO NOT QUOTE OR DISTRIBUTE WITHOUT PERMISSION© CRT Publications2Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training: A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles Alice F. Healy, Vivian I. Schneider, and Lyle E. Bourne, Jr.Univ Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlesersity of Colorado at BoulderI.IntroductionA.Purpose of this reviewThis document reviews the existing literature on theoretical and empirical researchTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles
in experimental cognitive psychology as it pertains to training, with a particular focus on the training of astronauts and other military' personnel. ỉTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training:A Literature Review of EmpiricalEvidence for Training PrinciplesAlice F. Healy, Vivian I. Schneider, a Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlesns. The principles vary to some degree in their empirical support, but this review includes only those for which there is convincing evidence and theoretical understanding. Nevertheless, for purposes of organization, those principles that are strongly established are distinguished from those that ar Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlese promising but require additional validation.B.Some important distinctionsThere are some important distinctions to keep in mind that influence the orTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles
ganization of this document and the implications that can be drawn from it.1Training principles, guidelines, and specificationsThe most important dist ỉTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training:A Literature Review of EmpiricalEvidence for Training PrinciplesAlice F. Healy, Vivian I. Schneider, a Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training PrinciplesPrinciples, guidelines, and specifications all relate to how training is best accomplished. In effect, they provide a conduit between training theory and training practice. A principle, which is the level addressed in this review, is an underlying troth or fact about human behavior. A guideline, in Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlescontrast, is a description of actions or conditions that, if correctly applied, could improve training. A specification is a detailed, precise statemeTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles
nt of how training should be designed by operationalizing training guidelines in the development of training programs. This review, thus, provides an ỉTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training:A Literature Review of EmpiricalEvidence for Training PrinciplesAlice F. Healy, Vivian I. Schneider, a Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlesed to translate these principles into guidelines and. subsequently, to specifications. This review focuses primarily on training principles but also offers suggested guidelines that might be examined in further research.2Training vs. educationPeople generally think of training and education as being Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles essentially the same.However, in this paper, a distinction is drawn between these processes. Education relates3to general knowledge and skills identiTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles
fied with particular domains, such as history or physics. Training, in contrast, relates to particular jobs or tasks that also require knowledge and s ỉTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training:A Literature Review of EmpiricalEvidence for Training PrinciplesAlice F. Healy, Vivian I. Schneider, a Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlesticular occupations, such as electrician or computer programmer. The principles of training are not necessarily the same as principles of education although there is undoubtedly a good deal of overlap. Both naming and education represent a transaction between teachers and students. The principles ol Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles training considered here recognize lhal relationship and apply to both teachers and students.31 raining of knowledge vs. naming of skillsThe principlTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles
es discussed here apply to both declarative information (knowledge) and procedural information (skills). Knowledge consists of facts, discriminations, ỉTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training:A Literature Review of EmpiricalEvidence for Training PrinciplesAlice F. Healy, Vivian I. Schneider, a Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlesing how to use those facts, which might be implicit and outside of person’s awareness or consciousness. For example, in statistics, knowledge includes the fact that the standaid deviation is a measure of data dispersion, whereas skills include executing the sequence of steps needed to compute a stan Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlesdard deviation in a data set. Both knowledge and skills are hierarchical and are logically linked together; facts at every' level of abstraction are aTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles
ssociated with procedures for using them. Note that training applies primarily to skill learning, whereas education emphasizes fact learning, although ỉTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training:A Literature Review of EmpiricalEvidence for Training PrinciplesAlice F. Healy, Vivian I. Schneider, a Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles at least some experimental evidence. The principles will be presented in categories or clusters. One basis of this organization is the degree of empirical support liecause some principles are strongly supported by the evidence, whereas the evidence for others is partial and incomplete. Within these Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles broad categories, grouping relies on similarity of effects, ft should lie recognized al the outset that both these broad and more specific categoriesTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles
are somewhat arbinary. A given principle might have been categorized differently or placed in more than one category, but only a single category choi ỉTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training:A Literature Review of EmpiricalEvidence for Training PrinciplesAlice F. Healy, Vivian I. Schneider, a Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlesates three fundamental underlying cognitive processes: acquisition (learning), retention (memory), and transfer (generalization). There are basic principles that apply at the level of these fundamental processes, which arc the starting point of the review.4A.Acquisition: Power law of practiceThere a Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlesre two major measures of performance during the acquisition of knowledge and skills: accuracy and speed of responses. With respect to response speed.Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles
Newell and Rosenbloom (1981) have argued that the Power Law of Practice describes the acquisition process for most skills. This law formalizes the rel ỉTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training:A Literature Review of EmpiricalEvidence for Training PrinciplesAlice F. Healy, Vivian I. Schneider, a Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlesnse lime on trial 1. and b is the rate of change. It follows that the relationship between response time and trial number is linear in log-log coordinates, log R = log a - b log N. In some cases, where more than one strategy can be used in the task, separate power functions apply to the different st Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlesrategies (Delaney, Reder, Staszewski, & Ritter, 1998: Rickard, 1997). This principle affords a way of predicting performance in a variety of tasks asTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles
a function of degree of practice (but see Roediger? 2008). With respect to response accuracy, a similar function seems to apply (e.g., Bourne. Healy, ỉTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training:A Literature Review of EmpiricalEvidence for Training PrinciplesAlice F. Healy, Vivian I. Schneider, a Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principleslated (e.g., Pachella, 1974). People sometimes trade speed for accuracy or vice versa. Likewise, the speed of executing the different steps of a complex task may not be positively correlated, with people slowing down on one step in order to be faster on another step (Healy, Kole, Buck-Gengler, & Bou Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlesrne, 2004; Kole, Healy, & Bourne, 2008). In these cases, the power law of practice might not be a good description for all measures. Furthermore, forTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles
optimal training, instructors need to be aware of what are the various steps in any task as well as whether speed or accuracy is more important in eac ỉTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training:A Literature Review of EmpiricalEvidence for Training PrinciplesAlice F. Healy, Vivian I. Schneider, a Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlespportunity to rehearse or refresh acquired knowledge or skills, performance declines, reflecting forgetting of what was learned. This decline in performance, exhibited in increased response time (or decreased accuracy), has been known since the time of Ebbinghaus (1885/1913), who used a measure of s Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlesavings (i.e., the amount of relearning required to achieve the criterion level of performance during original learning). Subsequently this relationshiTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles
p between response time and retention interval was described as a power law (Wickelgren, 1974), R = d + /Ts, where R is response lime, T is the retent ỉTowards the Improvement of Astronaut Training:A Literature Review of EmpiricalEvidence for Training PrinciplesAlice F. Healy, Vivian I. Schneider, a Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principles & Carpenter, 2007; see also Rubin & Wenzel, 1996) can be thought of as the inverse of the power law of practice (but see Roediger, 2008).c. Transfer: Laws relating to similarityTraining on a particular task has implications for performance on other related tasks. The effect of training on one task Towards the Improvement of Astronaut Training A Literature Review of Empirical Evidence for Training Principlescan be either positive (facilitation) or negative (interference) on performance of another task. When the acquisition of one task affectsGọi ngay
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