XML Technical Specification for Higher Education
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XML Technical Specification for Higher Education
Word Puzzles Produce Distinct Patterns of Activation in the Ventrolateral PrefrontalCortex and Anterior Cingulate CortexJohn R. AndersonCarnegie Mello XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationon UniversityJohn F. AndersonUniversity of VirginiaJennifer L. FerrisCarnegie Mellon UniversityJon M. FinchamCarnegie Mellon UniversityKwan-Jin JungUniversity of Pittsburgh1AbstractTwo studies used word puzzles that required participants to find a word that satisfied a set of constraints. The first XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationstudy used a remote associates task, where participants had to find a word that would form compound words with three other words. The second study reqXML Technical Specification for Higher Education
uired participants to complete a word fragment with an associate of another word. Both studies produced distinct patterns of activity in the ventrolatWord Puzzles Produce Distinct Patterns of Activation in the Ventrolateral PrefrontalCortex and Anterior Cingulate CortexJohn R. AndersonCarnegie Mello XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationetrieve the solution and dropped off as soon as the solution was obtained. However, activation in the ACC increased upon the retrieval of a solution reflecting the need to process that solution. An ACT-R model was fit to the data of the second experiment. The ACT-R theory interprets the activity in XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationthe VLPFC as reflecting retrieval operations and the activity in the ACC as the setting of control states or subgoals. The data confirm these interpreXML Technical Specification for Higher Education
tations over alternative interpretations.2Studies of cognitive neuroimaging have consistently shown that medial and lateral areas OÍ the prefrontal coWord Puzzles Produce Distinct Patterns of Activation in the Ventrolateral PrefrontalCortex and Anterior Cingulate CortexJohn R. AndersonCarnegie Mello XML Technical Specification for Higher Education 2006; Mac Donald el al., 2000; Schneider & Cole. 2007). However, the field is still Hying to articulate the precise roles of different prefrontal regions. The current work uses event-related func tional magnetic: resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate two particular components of cognitive demand: XML Technical Specification for Higher Education the need to retrieve specific information and the need to control the direc iion of cognition. The studies reported will test whether a region in theXML Technical Specification for Higher Education
ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VT.PFC) reflec ts memory retrieval demand and a region in dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) reflects goalrelevaWord Puzzles Produce Distinct Patterns of Activation in the Ventrolateral PrefrontalCortex and Anterior Cingulate CortexJohn R. AndersonCarnegie Mello XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationegions is informed by the ACT-R cognitive architecture (Anderson et al., 2004; Anderson. 2007) that is capable of making explicit the computations underlying task performance. According to the ACT-R theory, cognition emerges through the interaction of a number of relatively independent modules. Figu XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationre 1 identifies these modules and their brain associations. l ater the paper will describe an AC.T-R model that involves 6 ol these modules, but the pXML Technical Specification for Higher Education
rincipal focus is on the VLPFC region and the ACC region (regions 6 and 7 in Figure 1).Theories of the Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex and the AnterioWord Puzzles Produce Distinct Patterns of Activation in the Ventrolateral PrefrontalCortex and Anterior Cingulate CortexJohn R. AndersonCarnegie Mello XML Technical Specification for Higher Education Miller & Cohen. 2001: Pctrides, 2005). rhe ventrolateral region has been associated with retrieval factors in imaging studies (e.g., Buckner, 1999; Cabeza et al.,32002; Fletcher & Henson, 2001; Wagner, 2001). Il is also active in many (asks particularly those involving language. Badre and Wagner (2 XML Technical Specification for Higher Education007) suggest that the involvement of this region in such tasks can be understood in terms of retrieving the information needed to perform the tasks.WeXML Technical Specification for Higher Education
hypothesize that this region sen es the role of maintaining the retrieval cues for accessing information stored elsewhere in the brain. The longer itWord Puzzles Produce Distinct Patterns of Activation in the Ventrolateral PrefrontalCortex and Anterior Cingulate CortexJohn R. AndersonCarnegie Mello XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationipulate retrieval difficulty produce systematic differences in the activation of this region. This region (and not other regions in Figure 1) tends to respond to manipulations of fan or associative interference (Sohn et al., 2003, 2005), retention delay (Anderson et al., 2008), and repetition (Danke XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationr et al., in press). These are all factors that influence (he duration of a single retrieval from declarative memory. Perhaps the major competing inteXML Technical Specification for Higher Education
rpretation of this prefrontal region is that it is activated in conditions that require difficult selections among retrieved information (e.g., Moss eWord Puzzles Produce Distinct Patterns of Activation in the Ventrolateral PrefrontalCortex and Anterior Cingulate CortexJohn R. AndersonCarnegie Mello XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationdifficult conditions (Marlin & Cheng, 2005; Wagner et al., 2001). The research reported here will be relevant to adjudicating this difference.The ACC region is associated with ACT-R’s goal module that is responsible for setting subgoals or control Slates that enable different courses of information XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationprocessing to be taken when participants are in otherwise identical problem states. It thus enables internal control of cognition independent of exterXML Technical Specification for Higher Education
nal circumstances. The subgoals determine which branch is taken at decision points in the information processing. This sense of “control” is basicallyWord Puzzles Produce Distinct Patterns of Activation in the Ventrolateral PrefrontalCortex and Anterior Cingulate CortexJohn R. AndersonCarnegie Mello XML Technical Specification for Higher Education (e.g., Desposito et al., 1995; Posner & Dehaene, 1994; Posner & DiGirolamo. 1998;). However, other theories relate ACC activity to error detection, (e.g., Falkenstein et al., 1995; Gehring et al.), response conflict (Botvinick et al., 2001; Carter et al., 2000; Yeung et al., 2004), or the likelihoo XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationd of an error (Brown & Braver. 2005). Again the research to be reported here will be relevant to distinguishing among these various possibilities.ExpoXML Technical Specification for Higher Education
sing the Cycle of Central Cognition using Word Puzzle ProblemsCognitively demanding tasks tend to involve a cycle of retrieval and state changes. The Word Puzzles Produce Distinct Patterns of Activation in the Ventrolateral PrefrontalCortex and Anterior Cingulate CortexJohn R. AndersonCarnegie Mello XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationt (such as what is the sum of 5 plus 3?). With the retrieval of this information the system may need to change its internal state (e.g., change the mental representation of the equation to 2x = 8 and set a subgoal to perform division). This then in turn can evoke another retrieval request (e.g., wha XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationt is 8 divided by 2?). Thus, the cycle is one in which the current state of internal representations evoke requests for declarative retrievals and theXML Technical Specification for Higher Education
system may change its state to reflect the retrieved information. The mappings in Figure 1 imply that the retrieval operations will be reflected in tWord Puzzles Produce Distinct Patterns of Activation in the Ventrolateral PrefrontalCortex and Anterior Cingulate CortexJohn R. AndersonCarnegie Mello XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationctivity of the ACC. Many researchers have noticed that these regions tend to activate together and this is what ACT-R would expect given this information-processing cycle (e.g., Cabeza et al., 2003; Dorsenbach el aL, 2006; Schneider & Cole. 2007).5The research to be reported here will capitalize on XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationa feature of certain word puzzles that allow US to pull apart the retrieval module from the goal module. The first experiment will use remote associatXML Technical Specification for Higher Education
ion problems introduced by Mednick (1962). Participants saw three words (e.g., pine, crab, and sauce) and attempted to produce a single solution word Word Puzzles Produce Distinct Patterns of Activation in the Ventrolateral PrefrontalCortex and Anterior Cingulate CortexJohn R. AndersonCarnegie Mello XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationa goal is set to find a solution and the retrieval module is continuously engaged until the problem is solved. The important characteristic about these problems is that it takes a long time to retrieve a solution if one is retrieved at all. This produces a sustained demand on the retrieval module wh XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationile the goal module is dormant in a fixed state. In terms of predictions for the BOLD response this implies that activity should be increasing in theXML Technical Specification for Higher Education
VLPFC (retrieval module) while it is dropping off in the ACC (goal module). However, once the problem is solved, activity will stop in the retrieval mWord Puzzles Produce Distinct Patterns of Activation in the Ventrolateral PrefrontalCortex and Anterior Cingulate CortexJohn R. AndersonCarnegie Mello XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationand activity should increase in ACC while it decreases in VLPFC. This is the same cycle as in many tasks but because the retrieval phase can be so long it should be possible in this task to see the separation of the stages despite the limited temporal resolution of fMRI.Experiment 1In imaging resear XML Technical Specification for Higher Educationch Jung-Beeman et al. (2004) and Kounios et al. (in press) used the remote compound solutions from Bowden and Jung-Beeman (2003), adapted from the worXML Technical Specification for Higher Education
k of Mednick (1962). Their main research interest was in the contrast between solutions that were solved with a reported experience of insight and thoGọi ngay
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