Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2
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Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2
Cognitive ProcessesOnce psychologists gained sonic knowledge about the processes of acquisition and retention in learning (see Chapters 7 and 8), a nu Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2umber of them turned to consideration of the uses of learning. Ultimately, these studies have focused on the "things that go on in the head,” the mental content and activity called cognitive processes. This chapter concentrates on four major aspects of cognitive processes: Conceptual thinking, probl Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2em solving, decision making, and the development and use of language.9.1CONCEPTUAL THINKINGThe contents of memory, as described in Chapter 8, provideEbook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2
the bases on which conceptual thinking is formed. Thinking is symbolic mediation, or the use of symbols to span the time interval between presentationCognitive ProcessesOnce psychologists gained sonic knowledge about the processes of acquisition and retention in learning (see Chapters 7 and 8), a nu Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2al manipulation of the representation of information, thinking cannot be observed directly but must be assumed from observable behaviors.EXAMPLE 9.1. One college instructor is known to demonstrate the individuality and "hiddenness" of thinking by asking the class to "think of the dirtiest word you c Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2an!" The instructor then points out that unless one of the students calls out a word, there is no way for any member of the class to know what choiceEbook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2
another student made. However, one of the students could speak, write, or gesture in a way that would indicate his or her thought. The other students Cognitive ProcessesOnce psychologists gained sonic knowledge about the processes of acquisition and retention in learning (see Chapters 7 and 8), a nu Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2 of an object, event, action, or idea. A symbol may take any form or meaning as long as there is general agreement that it stands for another particular thing.Concepts. Concepts arc symbols that summarize or generalize attributes typical of several objects, events, actions, or ideas that arc dissimi Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2lar in other important aspects. Concepts distinguish between members and nonmembers of the conceptual category on the basis of specified characteristiEbook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2
cs and thus create basic categories of knowledge or meaning. They simplify, summarize, and give structure or predictability to what otherwise might beCognitive ProcessesOnce psychologists gained sonic knowledge about the processes of acquisition and retention in learning (see Chapters 7 and 8), a nu Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2d as superordinaie (the highest level), basic (an intermediate level), and subordinate (the lowest level). Typical speech employs mostly basic-level concepts.Copyright 2(X) I The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click Here for Terms of Use.154CHAP. 9|COGNITIVE PROCESSES155EXAMPLE 9.2. When a person asks Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2a companion to "please hand me a beer,” a basic-level concept is being used. Such a request is much more likely to be made than is a request for “a chEbook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2
illed alcoholic [leverage brewed from barley and hops and encased in an aluminum can" or for a "drink.” The first (subordinate) is far more specific tCognitive ProcessesOnce psychologists gained sonic knowledge about the processes of acquisition and retention in learning (see Chapters 7 and 8), a nu Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2y by their defining features and. thus, may be well defined or fuzzy. A well-defined concept has precise features, ones that allow for little ambiguity. Fuzzy concepts arc less clear and usually arc explained by giving examples.EXAMPLE 9.3. Concepts in the sciences or mathematics are likely to be we Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2ll defined. Although its size may differ from one example to the next, a "circle” otherwise always has exactly the same properties. By contrast, the cEbook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2
oncept of “bird” is far less exact. Some birds fly. others do not. some have songs, and others are silent—the defining features are much less clear.CoCognitive ProcessesOnce psychologists gained sonic knowledge about the processes of acquisition and retention in learning (see Chapters 7 and 8), a nu Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2e complex when more than one stimulus property is considered simultaneously.Complex concepts take several forms. Conjunctive concepts are defined by the simultaneous presence of two or mot e properties. Disjunctive concepts may be based on two or more properties, but any one property or a combinatio Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2n of properties is adequate to satisfy the concept. Relational concepts establish a relationship between two properties.EXAMPLE 9.4. The various typesEbook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2
of complex concepts can be illustrated by considering beverages The word “highball" represents a conjunctive concept because to satisfy (or fit into)Cognitive ProcessesOnce psychologists gained sonic knowledge about the processes of acquisition and retention in learning (see Chapters 7 and 8), a nu Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2" is a disjunctive concept because any one of a number of drinks (such as water, beer, and milk) or a combination of drinks (such as coffee with milk) satisfies the concept. Any comparison, such as the statement “Milkshakes ate thicker than sodas.” expresses a relational concept.Ambiguous or "fuzzy” Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2 concepts often are described by citing a prototype, a typical or highly representative example of the concept. Prototypes produce high agreement amonEbook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2
g persons asked to designate which examples fit the category and which do not. most likely because a prototype contains more features associated with Cognitive ProcessesOnce psychologists gained sonic knowledge about the processes of acquisition and retention in learning (see Chapters 7 and 8), a nu Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2f the "best” characteristics of the category. Individual examples of the category arc then called exemplars.EXAMPLE 9.5. By far the most likely prototype responses to the question “What is a pet?" are "dog" and “cat.” It is much less likely that the responses will include “fish" or “snake." even tho Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2ugh both of those animals are kept as pets by some people. Consider what the properties arc that make a dog or a cal the more appropriate response, anEbook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2
d you will list the features associated with the concept. Note that you may have to do this by citing exemplars such as “Labrador retriever.” “boxer.”Cognitive ProcessesOnce psychologists gained sonic knowledge about the processes of acquisition and retention in learning (see Chapters 7 and 8), a nu Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2nsideration in cognitive psychology has been problem solving. Problem solving occurs when an individual or group establishes a goal and seeks ways to reach that goal. Careful research on problem-solving processes has disclosed a fairly common sequence of events leading to the attainment of that goal Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2.156COGNITIVE PROCESSES(CHAP. 9The Problem-Solving Sequence. Tile steps in problem solving seem to be as follows:Recognize that there is a problem. NoEbook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2
t being able to understand that there is a problem stops the process at this point.Define the problem accurately. This seems to involve representing tCognitive ProcessesOnce psychologists gained sonic knowledge about the processes of acquisition and retention in learning (see Chapters 7 and 8), a nu Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2Produce hypotheses about the problem's solution. Based on the concepts selected in the previous step, guesses about how to resolve the problem are developed.Test the hypotheses. Each hypothesis should be confirmed or disconfirmed. While several hypotheses may solve the problem, it often is possible Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2to select a single best solution. If all are disconfirmed, checking and repeating the previous steps to create different hypotheses is necessary to atEbook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2
tain the goal.EXAMPLE 9.6. The sequence of events leading to a goal is easily demonstrated if your boss asks you to travel to “Athens" to evaluate a bCognitive ProcessesOnce psychologists gained sonic knowledge about the processes of acquisition and retention in learning (see Chapters 7 and 8), a nu Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2Greece when the intent is to send you to Athens. Ohio, the problem is not defined correctly and no solution you generate is going to work. If you do understand that the city is in Ohio, you then can generate possible solutions (hypotheses) involving various ways to get there—take a car and drive, fl Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2y to the nearest airport and rent a car to drive to the city, take a train, take a bus—and then test each to determine which might be the most efficieEbook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2
nt and cost-effective, selecting the one that seems to fit best with attaining the goal.While Example 9.6 is fairly straightforward, it should be recoCognitive ProcessesOnce psychologists gained sonic knowledge about the processes of acquisition and retention in learning (see Chapters 7 and 8), a nu Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2rst must recognize that there is a problem and define it correctly, then determine the key concepts necessary for solving the problem, and finally complete the problem-solving sequence as described above.Problem-Solving Strategies. If successful problem solving requires resolving the sequence presen Ebook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2ted above, a crucial aspect is producing the possible solutions. This solution-process production generally falls into one of two categories: algorithEbook Introduction to psychology (2nd edition): Part 2
ms or heuristics.An algorithm is a procedure or set of actions that guarantees a solution to the problem. Many computers arc programmed with algorithmGọi ngay
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