Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2
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Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2
p In an open held somewhere, a group ol ground squirrels feed. Seemingly out of nowhere, a long-tailed weasel (Aftrsreta frenata) appears, targeting t Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2the squirrels in the field as its prey. Suddenly an alarm call given by one squirrel alerts others of the impending danger rhe field comes to life with squirrels making mad dashes everywhere, doing whatever they can to reach their burrow, or at least some safe haven. Later, when the predator has dep Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2arted, the squirrels reemerge.In terms of costs and benefits, this type of alarm seems counterintuitive. Why should an individual squirrel give off anEbook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2
alarm call' Emitting alarm calls as loud as possible, if nothing else, should make the alarm caller the single most obvious thing In tlx- entire fielp In an open held somewhere, a group ol ground squirrels feed. Seemingly out of nowhere, a long-tailed weasel (Aftrsreta frenata) appears, targeting t Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2her squirrel lake the risks?Paul Sherman has been addressing these sorts of questions in long-term studies of alarm calls In Belding’s ground squirrels (Sperwtoplti/ns beUingi; Sherman. 1977. 1980, 1981, 1985; figure 9.1). Sherman has found that genetic relatedness affects animal behavior in importa Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2nt ways, playing a large role In whether or not natural selection favors squirrels emitting alarm calls when a predator is detected.In this chapter, aEbook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2
lter an introductory section demonstrating the power of genetic kinship to affect animal behavior, we will examine:- the theoretical foundation underlp In an open held somewhere, a group ol ground squirrels feed. Seemingly out of nowhere, a long-tailed weasel (Aftrsreta frenata) appears, targeting t Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2lry; and► how and why animals recognize kin.FIGURE 9.1. Alarm calling in squirrels. In Belding’s ground squirrels, females (A) ate much more likely than males to emit alarm calls when predators are sighted. Such alarm calls warn others, including female relatives and their pups (B). (Photo credits: Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2George D Lepp; Paul tv. Sherman)272 I CHAPTER 9 I KINSHIPKinship and Animal BehaviorBelding's ground squirrels, like many other species, such as prairEbook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2
ie dogs, give alarm calls when a predator Is spotted (Hoogland, 1983, 1995). These calls signal that a predator is in the vicinity and others respond p In an open held somewhere, a group ol ground squirrels feed. Seemingly out of nowhere, a long-tailed weasel (Aftrsreta frenata) appears, targeting t Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2e need lo recognize that alarm calls in these squirrels are most often emitted by females. That Is. female squirrels give alarm calls when a predator is in the vicinity more often than expected by chance, whereas males give fewer alarm calls than expected by chance (l*igure 9.2). The question of Int Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2erest then IS not "Why are alarm calls emitted'" but "Why do females give alarm calls so often?" The answer lies in gender differences in w here the sEbook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2
quirrels live and In their proximity to their genetic km.In Belding's ground squirrels. males emigrate from their group to find mates, but females matp In an open held somewhere, a group ol ground squirrels feed. Seemingly out of nowhere, a long-tailed weasel (Aftrsreta frenata) appears, targeting t Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2he individuals that live around them—females find themselves surrounded by genetic relatives, while adult males are generally in groups that do not contain many genetic relatives (figure 9.3). When females give alarm calls, they are warning genetic kin Any alarm calls given by adult males, however, Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2primarily warn unrelated Individuals. Kinship, then, lies at the heart of female alarm calling, further support for the kinship-based alarm-calling hyEbook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2
pothesis includes Shermans finding that. In the rare Instances In which adult females do move away from their natal groups and into grou|>s with fewerp In an open held somewhere, a group ol ground squirrels feed. Seemingly out of nowhere, a long-tailed weasel (Aftrsreta frenata) appears, targeting t Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2rring antisocial behavior as well As an extreme case, consider homicide in humans. Martin Daly and Margo Wilson examined SI2 homicide casesFIGURE 9.2. Ground squirrel alarm calls. When comparing the observed (orange bars) versus the expected (green bars) frequencies of alarm calls in Belding's groun Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2d squirrels, females emit such calls at a rate greater than that expected by chance (p < .ooi). As a result of dispersal differences across sexes, femEbook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2
ales, but not males, are often In kin based groups. (From Sherman, Ỉ977)KINSHIP AND ANIMAL BEHAVIOR I 273FIGURE 9.3. Kin selection and ground squirrelp In an open held somewhere, a group ol ground squirrels feed. Seemingly out of nowhere, a long-tailed weasel (Aftrsreta frenata) appears, targeting t Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2 Males that emigrate Into such groups cooperate to a much smaller degree. (Scsed on Pfennig and Sherman, ỉặậĩ)occurring in 1972 in Detroit. Michigan I iXily and Wilson. 198K). In the police records, 127—a full 25 percent—of these murder' were committed by what the police records denote as "relatives Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2."The police, however. classify in-laws, and even boyfriend-girlfriend pairs, as relatives, rather than limltlngthl' category to genetic kin. When DalEbook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2
y and Wilson considered only genetic kin. rather than these other categories, only 6 percent of thi' murders involved relatives, Genetic kin don't kilp In an open held somewhere, a group ol ground squirrels feed. Seemingly out of nowhere, a long-tailed weasel (Aftrsreta frenata) appears, targeting t Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2vored—they both have Indirect consequences on (hose who share (he same alleles.With respect to Daly and Wilsons homicide data from Detroit, it might be argued that the reason that homicide rales among genetic km are low Is that. In modern society, people encounter unrelated individuals much more oft Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2en than genetic kin. l or example, if killers spent 94 percent of their lime with unrelated Individualsand 6 percent with genetic kin. then the 6 percEbook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2
ent murder rate among genetic kin would be expected simply by chance, and this would not indicate that genetic relatedness reduces homicide. Yet. Dalyp In an open held somewhere, a group ol ground squirrels feed. Seemingly out of nowhere, a long-tailed weasel (Aftrsreta frenata) appears, targeting t Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2each other (’fable 9.1). Hew forces have tlx* power to shape animal behavior the way that genetic kinship canKinship TheoryThe modern st udy of an ima 1 behav ior and evol ul ion bega n i n t he ea rly 1960s. when w D Hamilton.oneof the leadlngevolutlonaryblologlslsoft het went iethcentury, publishe Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2d his now famous papers on genetic kinship and the evolution of social274 I CHAPTER 9 I KINSHIPTABLE 9.1. Risk of homicide in casos wh«r« th# victim aEbook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2
nd offender w«ro cohabitants in Detroit in 1972. Observed values indicate the number of homicides that were actually committed. Expected values indicap In an open held somewhere, a group ol ground squirrels feed. Seemingly out of nowhere, a long-tailed weasel (Aftrsreta frenata) appears, targeting t Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2individuals who were not genetic relatives. These numbers are underestimates since the “parent* and “offspring* categories include some stepfamily members and some in laws. (From Daly and Wilson, 1988)THE AVERAGE DETROITER 2 14 YEARS OLD IN 1972 LIVED WITH j.oPEORlENUMREROr VICTIMSRELATIVE RISK (OBS Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2ERVED/EXPECTEO)OBSERVEDEXPECTED0.6 Spouses6520117490.1 Nonrelatives113121140.9 “Offspring"8290.270-4 ‘Parents"9130.691.0 Other "relatives”s330.15behavEbook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2
ior (Hamilton. 1963, 1964) These papers formalized the theory of ’inclusive illness" or "kinship" theory and revolutionized the way scientists understp In an open held somewhere, a group ol ground squirrels feed. Seemingly out of nowhere, a long-tailed weasel (Aftrsreta frenata) appears, targeting t Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2 its own offspring and the contribution It makes to the reproductive success ol Its genetic relatives.But uh)' is kinship so powerful an evolutionary force in promoting social behaviors like cooperation and altruism (In Chapter 10 we will discuss other paths leading to such behaviors)? Hamilton had Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2this to say in his seminal paper tying together genetic kinship and the evolution of altruism:In the hope that it may provide a useful summary we therEbook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2
efore hazard the following generalized unrigourous statement of the main principle that has emerged from the model, the social behavior of a species ep In an open held somewhere, a group ol ground squirrels feed. Seemingly out of nowhere, a long-tailed weasel (Aftrsreta frenata) appears, targeting t Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2ng to the coefficients of relationship appropriate to that situation (Hamilton's italics]. (Hamilton. 1964. p. 19)Although rightly credited with beingthe founder of modern kinshiptheory, I lamillon was not the first to recognize the power of kinship to shape behavior (Dugatkln, 2006). Before Hamilto Ebook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2n, Charles Darwin suggested that the suicidallyallruistic defense behavior that he observed insocial insects like bees may have evolved as a result ofEbook Orinciples of animal behavior (3E): Part 2
bees defending hives filled with their kin—that Is. under certain conditions, natural selection could favor such extreme altruism if the recipients oGọi ngay
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