RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26
➤ Gửi thông báo lỗi ⚠️ Báo cáo tài liệu vi phạmNội dung chi tiết: RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26
RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26
Natural Behavior 1RUNNING HEAD: NATURAL BEHAVIORRotating with Rotated Text: A Natural Behavior Approach to Investigating Cognitive OffloadingEvan F. R RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26Risko1Srdan Medimorec2Joseph Chisholm5Alan Kingstone31.University of Memphis2Arizona Stale University3University of British ColumbiaThis work was supported by a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada(NSERC) Postdoctoral Fellowship and a Killam Postdoctoral Fellowship to EFR and RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26NSERCoperating grants to AK. Address correspondence to Evan F. Risko. Psychology Department, University of Memphis. Memphis. Tennessee. 38152. UnitedRiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26
States. Email:Natural Behavior 2efnsko@memphis.edu.AbstractDetermining how we use our body to support cognition represents an important part of undersNatural Behavior 1RUNNING HEAD: NATURAL BEHAVIORRotating with Rotated Text: A Natural Behavior Approach to Investigating Cognitive OffloadingEvan F. R RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26k. Specifically, we report a series of experiments investigating head tilt (i.e., external normalization) as a strategy in letter naming and reading stimuli that are upright or rotated. We demonstrate that the frequency of this natural behavior is modulated by the cost of stimulus rotation on perfor RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26mance. In addition, we demonstrate that external normalization can benefit performance. All of the results are consistent with the notion that externaRiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26
l normalization represents a form of cognitive offloading and that effort is an important factor in the decision to adopt an internal or external straNatural Behavior 1RUNNING HEAD: NATURAL BEHAVIORRotating with Rotated Text: A Natural Behavior Approach to Investigating Cognitive OffloadingEvan F. R RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26nitive science on the embodied and embedded nature of cognition (e.g., Clark, 2010: Glcnbcrg. 2010: Killen & Glcnbcrg, 2010: llollan. Hutchins, & Kirsh 2000; Hutchins, 1995; Kirsch, 1996; 2010; Plieller & Bongard, 2006; Wilson, 2002). According to tills perspective, an important part of understandin RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26g cognition involves considering how we use our body (e.g., Pfiefer & Bongard, 2006) and the world (e.g.. Kirsch, 1996) in the course of cognizing (HuRiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26
tchins, 1995). In this conceptual framework the systematic study of naturally occurring behavior takes on added significance as it provides a window iNatural Behavior 1RUNNING HEAD: NATURAL BEHAVIORRotating with Rotated Text: A Natural Behavior Approach to Investigating Cognitive OffloadingEvan F. R RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26nitive system deals with impairments caused by stimulus rotation.Understanding how individuals recognize objects that arc not presented in their canonical orientation (i.e., rotated objects) has long represented a fundamental problem in cognitive psychology (c.g., Corballis. 1988: Graf, 2006: Jolico RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26cur, 1990a; laiT, 1995; Tarr A Pinker, 1989). Tor example, presenting objec ts in a non-canonic al orientalion is often used in an attempt to understaRiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26
nd constancies in visual object recognition (c.g., lair, 1995). There exist numerous demonstrations that performance, across a range of tasks,Natural Natural Behavior 1RUNNING HEAD: NATURAL BEHAVIORRotating with Rotated Text: A Natural Behavior Approach to Investigating Cognitive OffloadingEvan F. R RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26ur, 1990a). This appears to be true for a number of different classes of stimuli and tasks, for example, naming line drawings of natural objects (Jolicoeur, 1985), naming single letters (Jolicoeur & Landau, 1984; Jolicoeur, Snow & Murray, 1987; Kolers & Perkins, 1969a; 1969b), reading words (Koriat RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26& Norman, 1984), and recognizing scenes (Diwadkar & McNamara, 1997). That said, it is also important to note that presenting objects in a non-canonicaRiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26
l orientation does not always lead to a cost (Hamm & McMullen, 1998; Murray, 1998; Wells & Hamm, 2009).When a cost occurs as a result of stimulus rotaNatural Behavior 1RUNNING HEAD: NATURAL BEHAVIORRotating with Rotated Text: A Natural Behavior Approach to Investigating Cognitive OffloadingEvan F. R RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26ght to align the stimulus representation with a stored representation in memory. Numerous accounts attribute this alignment to a form of analog mental rotation (e.g.. Jolicoeur, 1990a; Tarr, 1995; Tarr & Pinker, 1989). Consistent with this idea are the similar patterns of performance found in studie RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26s of rotated object recognition and classic mental rotation (e.g., Cooper, 1975; Cooper & Shepard, 1975; Shepard, & Meltzer, 1971). However, numerousRiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26
studies have questioned the notion that the cost associated with identifying a rotated object is due to the need to mentally rotate an internal represNatural Behavior 1RUNNING HEAD: NATURAL BEHAVIORRotating with Rotated Text: A Natural Behavior Approach to Investigating Cognitive OffloadingEvan F. R RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26on, 1998; Wilson & Farah, 2006). An alternative account of the alignment process views it as a coordinate transformation (Graf. 2006). According to this account, alignment consists of the analog rotation of an internal reference frame to match theNatural Behavior 5stimulus. The reference frame is co RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26nsidered to be viewer centered. For example, when a rotated stimulus is presented this internal reference frame can be adjusted to match the orientatiRiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26
on of the stimulus (e.g., top of the internal reference frame aligned with the top of the stimulus) in order to facilitate the matching of that represNatural Behavior 1RUNNING HEAD: NATURAL BEHAVIORRotating with Rotated Text: A Natural Behavior Approach to Investigating Cognitive OffloadingEvan F. R RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26 upright, but rather an internal reference frame is rotated to match the stimulus. Some of the strongest evidence for the coordinate transformation account comes from research demonstrating orientation congruency effects wherein processing a stimulus at one orientation facilitates processing of anot RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26her (unrelated) stimulus when their orientations are similar (Graf et al., 2005; Jolicoeur. 1990b; but see McMullen, Hamm, & Jolicoeur, 1995; GauthierRiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26
& Tarr, 1997). Because the present investigation is not concerned with discriminating between these accounts, we refer to the cost of stimulus rotatiNatural Behavior 1RUNNING HEAD: NATURAL BEHAVIORRotating with Rotated Text: A Natural Behavior Approach to Investigating Cognitive OffloadingEvan F. R RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26 or any other similar procedure (Wells & Hamm, 2009).From Internal to External NormalizationNormalization, whether via mental rotation or coordinate transformation, is considered an internal process. However, an individual’s frame of reference can also be adjusted through external normalization (e.g RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26., Koriat & Norman, 1984; Wexler, Kosslyn, & Berthoz, 1998). For example, Pashler, Ramachandran and Becker (2006) demonstrated that when an individualRiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26
attends to a rotated word their eye will rotate in the direction of the tilt. Thus, the body is aligned to some extent with the stimulus. While this Natural Behavior 1RUNNING HEAD: NATURAL BEHAVIORRotating with Rotated Text: A Natural Behavior Approach to Investigating Cognitive OffloadingEvan F. R RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26ger physical rotations, for example head tilt, certainly have that potential. Indeed, as Wexler et al. (1998) suggest, external forms of normalization may be the most common way individuals go about dealing with impairments caused by stimulus rotation. Interestingly, the spontaneous use of this type RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26 of strategy has not come under systematic investigation. Here we investigate one particular form of external normalization - head tilt.While spontaneRiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26
ous head tilt in the context of tasks involving stimulus rotation has not been systematically studied, experimenter induced head lilt has been employeNatural Behavior 1RUNNING HEAD: NATURAL BEHAVIORRotating with Rotated Text: A Natural Behavior Approach to Investigating Cognitive OffloadingEvan F. R RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26licoeur, 1990: Rock & Heimer, 1957). In these experiments, participants are forced to adopt a particular degree of head tilt prior to the stimulus being presented in order to determine the coordinate frame used for object recognition. This is because, when an individual’s head is upright and the sti RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26mulus is rotated, the performance cost that is observed is consistent with the use of either a retinal or a gravitational reference frame. By forcingRiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26
individuals to tilt their head prior to stimulus presentation; the use of these two reference frames can be disambiguated. For example, if both the paNatural Behavior 1RUNNING HEAD: NATURAL BEHAVIORRotating with Rotated Text: A Natural Behavior Approach to Investigating Cognitive OffloadingEvan F. R RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26ms, then a performance cost (relative to when the stimulus is presented at 0 degrees) would provide evidence for the use of a gravitational coordinate frame. Using such methods, McMullen and Jolicoeur (1990) demonstrated that naming objects uses a retinal reference frame. Specifically, when particip RiskoMedimorecChisholmKingstone_COGSCI_REVISION2OCT26ants’ head was tilted away from upright the function relating response time to angular deviation shifted in a mannerGọi ngay
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