The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps
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The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps
The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement GapsJoseph MurphyVanderbilt University(Copyright)Corwin Press (Forthcoming. 2010)htt The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gapstps://khothuvien.cori!Chapter 11 Closing Achievement Gaps: A Focus on SchoolingStill, it is the schools we turn to for a solution. But we would do well to remember that we are asking schools to solve a problem not of their own making. (Porter. 2007, p. 8)If it is possible to do so, it is essential t The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gapso intervene directly in the quality of education provided to African American children while we are waiting for social and economic equity to arrive.The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps
(Slavin & Madden, 2001, p. 6) Equity-minded educators are choosing to shift the framing of this inquiry from explaining the academic failure of studenThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement GapsJoseph MurphyVanderbilt University(Copyright)Corwin Press (Forthcoming. 2010)htt The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps. 599)No matter what policies are passed, what laws are enacted and what best practices are replicated, it is the teachers and principals working with individual children and their families who ultimately make the difference. (McGee, 2003, p. 45)IntroductionThe question at hand at this point in our The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gapsnarrative is what can schools contribute to closing racial and social class achievement gaps? “What mix of... school arrangements and educator practicThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps
es would consistently produce a distribution of achievement for poor and/or culturally different minority children” (Miller, 1995, pp. 369-370). On thThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement GapsJoseph MurphyVanderbilt University(Copyright)Corwin Press (Forthcoming. 2010)htt The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gapsclassic work on inequality Jencks and colleagues (1972) report that “there is no evidence that school reform can substantially reduce the extent of cognitive inequality, as measured by tests of verbal fluency, reading comprehension, or mathematical skill" (p. 8). Nearly a quarter of a century later, The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps in his hallmark volume on the achievement gap Rothstein (2004) argues that “the influence of social class characteristics is probably so powerful thaThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps
t schools cannot overcome it, no matter how well trained are their teachers and no matter how well designed are their instructional programs and climaThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement GapsJoseph MurphyVanderbilt University(Copyright)Corwin Press (Forthcoming. 2010)htt The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement GapsLee 2004). And Ferguson (1998a) reminds US that "national data show that, al best, the black-white lest score gap is roughly constant (in standard deviations) from the primary through the secondary glades” (p. 273).As Hertert and Teague (2003) confirm, "taken as a whole research findings are inconcl The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gapsusive and have yet to reveal ‘what works’ to narrow the achievement gap” (p. 6).Unfortunately, this silence reflects an absence of knowledge; relativeThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps
ly little research exists that examines within-school disparities in performanc e and assesses the prospects for school-level policies and programs toThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement GapsJoseph MurphyVanderbilt University(Copyright)Corwin Press (Forthcoming. 2010)htt The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gapslevels in high-risk groups is still unknown. (Chatterji, 2006, p. 491)Education research over die last 30 years has included extensive investigations of the factors influencing student achievement. The results of much of this research—especially as it pertains to public schooling— are inconclusive, The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gapsif not contradictory, and provide few definitive answers on how best to improve learning for all students, in particular the lowest-performing studentThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps
s. (Herten & Teague, 2003, p. 17)Efforts to reduce gaps, in turn, have not routinely been successful, even when solution strategies are relatively cleThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement GapsJoseph MurphyVanderbilt University(Copyright)Corwin Press (Forthcoming. 2010)htt The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gapsearch and reform aimed at improving disadvantaged student achievement performance, current data on urtian achievement reveal that these programs have not met the task” (p. 198). Davison and colleagues (2004) weigh in here as well: “While individual students may make up lost ground, data suggest that The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps groups of students seldom make up even small amounts of lost ground” (p. 753).3https://khothuvien.cori!Worse still, as Cook and Evans (2000) documentThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps
, the quality of schools for African-American students is on a downward not upward trajectory: “There have been substantial changes in relative schoolThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement GapsJoseph MurphyVanderbilt University(Copyright)Corwin Press (Forthcoming. 2010)htt The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gapsrelative quality of predominantly minority schools” (p. 749). Overall then, “while the push for higher levels of achievement may have increased, the tools needed to make it happen on a broad scale in high-poverty schools... have not followed in sufficient scope and magnitude” (Balfanz & Byrnes, 2006 The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps, p. 145).On the other side of the ledger, however, there are some positive entries to record as well. Some strong theoretical work links “factors oveThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps
r which schools have control” (Caldas & Bankston, 1999, p. 92) and academic outcomes. There is also considerable evidence that in general schools can The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement GapsJoseph MurphyVanderbilt University(Copyright)Corwin Press (Forthcoming. 2010)htt The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps that “schools are most beneficial for those [students] who need them most” (Entwisle & Alexander, 1992, p. 83). And there are also numerous existence proofs of schools successfully educating low-income children and African-American students (Burns, Keyes, & Kusimo, 2005).Turning to the gap issue di The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gapsrectly, as we portrayed on the deficit side of the ledger, the analysis is mixed. Much of the research concludes that “once achievement gaps between sThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps
tudent groups emerge, they tend to persist over time” (Davidson et al., 2004, p. 758), that “school factors can have an impact on test scores but theyThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement GapsJoseph MurphyVanderbilt University(Copyright)Corwin Press (Forthcoming. 2010)htt The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gapsontributions of families and communities, schools can4https://khothuvien.cori!make a difference in closing the achievement gap" (Braun et al., 2006, p. 9). Thus, according to analysts such as Stiefel and associates (2006), “evidence exists to suggest that school policies... can help reduce gaps” (p. The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps 11).The takeaway messages here for educators and policy makers are as follows: First, while much of the heavy lifting to address the achievement gapThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps
problem must be done by those outside of education, schools have a pan to play. Second, when that part is played well schools advantage historically dThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement GapsJoseph MurphyVanderbilt University(Copyright)Corwin Press (Forthcoming. 2010)htt The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gapsent scores. Fourth, therefore, a significant package of actions across the refonn landscape is needed to tackle the knotty problem of achievement gaps. We turn to an analysis of helpful school-based interventions below. Our goal, is “to identify individual and school processes that lead to and foste The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gapsr success among students of color [and poor children] and close the achievement gap" (Cooper, 2000, p. 600). Before we do so, however, we provide tetiThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps
more general rules of engagement to guide gapreduction work.General Rules of EngagementCoherent and intentional actions need to be taken to create anThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement GapsJoseph MurphyVanderbilt University(Copyright)Corwin Press (Forthcoming. 2010)htt The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gapslution lies in reducing the number of high-school-age students who did poorly in elementary school. (Miller, 1995. p. 57)We begin our discussion of school-based, gap-closing strategies by expanding upon some of the strategic rules of action introduced in chapter 1. In a real sense, these are the key The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps framing ideas that need to be followed in selecting more specific interventions for working to narrow achievement gaps.51. There is no silver bulletThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps
that will solve the achievement gap problem (Balfanz & Byrnes, 2006)—and “no magic laundry list” (Baenen et al., 2002, p. 48) either. There are no “drThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement GapsJoseph MurphyVanderbilt University(Copyright)Corwin Press (Forthcoming. 2010)htt The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps. As Stiefel and colleagues (2006) remind US. there are no easy answers laying about to this exceedingly complex problem (Braun et al., 2006). And as Thompson and O’Quinn (2001) astutely observe, “important complexities and pitfalls’’ (p. 5) are associated with all gap closing reform strategies, and The Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps “none is easy to carry out” (p. 5). It is also “difficult to know precisely how much an intervention will narrow the gap” (Rothstein, 2004, p. 6).WhaThe Educator’s Handbook for Understanding and Closing Achievement Gaps
t this tells US is that “since there is little evidence that any existing strategy can close much more than a fraction of the overall achievement gapGọi ngay
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